note -- There are times in which heaven itself appears to open. A simple taste of something becomes a wonderful treasure. I first read Cassian in a small selection which was included in an anthology. I liked it and decided to study his writings further. In doing this I was introduced to writings which I honestly consider the most important outside of Scripture. That he is so unknown now is not just sad, it is scandalous. With a Bible and Cassian a person would have all they need to read. This was the second great discovery I made at Fuller Seminary, which like my study of Communion blossomed throughout my career in different studies.

John Cassian

It is part of the shame of the modern Evangelical church that we do not remember very well those who have gone before us, who have blazed our trails, and given wisdom to our understandings. Certainly there are names which survive the ages, such as Augustine, Calvin, Luther, and Wesley, but interestingly our historical blindness has left many thinkers and profound spiritual leaders in a place where they are not as easily accessible. In doing this we have found ourselves fighting battles which were waged 1500 years ago, and struggling through wildernesses where there have been trails existent for centuries. We forget our forbears to our own peril and malnourishment. It is with this in mind that I make a journey of exploration in this paper, seeking to understand, even if ever so briefly, the thought of a giant of Christian Spirituality, who was virtually unknown to me prior to the last few months. John Cassian was one of the greatest influences in the lives of Christians throughout the centuries, his writings were the part of the foundations of many Spiritual lives, and were considered essential reading for those who wished to journey along in the Christian life. Yet, we do not remember him very well in our modern context. It is the goal of this paper to introduce John Cassian, beginning with a short examination of his life and overall thought. Due to the brevity of this essay, rather than attempt a broad overview of his theology and spirituality, I will instead look at five of his Conferences, seeking to understand his thought through these representational examples. John Cassian was a thinker and writer whose thought has been our loss to lose in our common conversation. His wisdom and understanding have influenced countless Christians throughout the ages, and indeed has a voice to speak still to Christians in our day and age.

The details of John Cassian’s life are rather sketchy. There is not an extant Life or Acts, and thus we do not even have a basic narrative of any quality to help us in our understanding of his personal history. What we know comes from the piecing together of bits and pieces from his and other’s writings, and which can help in building at least a basic framework of his life’s activities. He apparently was born around the year 360, presumably in Scythia Minor, which was located near what is now the border of Romania and Bulgaria. [1] It is very likely that he was born into a pious, Christian family and had at least a sister. [2] His family was wealthy, owners of much land, and without material worries. [3] As such he was educated well, and had the ability to travel. While he was still young, he and an older friend named Germanus journeyed to Bethlehem, where they were accepted into a monastery very near the cave of the Nativity. [4]

He spent several years there (the exact amount of time is unknown), sharing a room with his friend Germanus, and occasionally guests, or other novices. One of these novices who shared their cell came to their monastery as an old man, seeking shelter and the opportunity to live in a holy place as a lowly servant. [5] He was reluctantly accepted and assigned to be a gardener, as well as to duties considered disgusting by other monks. All that he was assigned he did with humility, finishing his duties every day, as well as rising in the middle of the night to do needed tasks anonymously. Pilgrims from Egypt came to their monastery one day, and notified the abbot that this novice was in fact an abba and priest over a large cenobium, renowned for his holiness, virtuous life, and miracles. Apparently, the praises poured out on him for his noble life, raised in him worries that pride would overtake him and he sought to be humble in a place where no one knew him, and where he could continue his pursuit of holiness without the temptations adulations bring. This was in fact the second time he had escaped the bonds of popularity and sought anonymity in a far off place. He was taken back by the pilgrim monks, not very willingly in fact, to once again serve the community in Egypt.

Apparently, the holiness of this man, as well as probable interactions with others from Egypt, encouraged John Cassian and Germanus to temporarily leave their monastery and make a journey to Egypt so as to learn from the wisdom which had collected there in the persons of the monks. They took an oath that they would return shortly, and not needlessly lengthen their stay. Once arriving in Egypt, however, they soon realized the paucity of holiness which their home monastery held to, and were entranced by the words and lives of the holy men of Egypt. They ended up staying, agonizing somewhat over their vow, but convinced that their spiritual lives were enhanced more by staying in Egypt than by keeping their vow. [6] They stayed here about over thirteen years, traveling to famous monks throughout the region, including their old friend Pinufius who once shared their cell and was back now in charge of a community of monks. [7]

Somewhere around the turn of the 5^th century, the two left Egypt, possibly due to the massive persecution of Origenist monks, many of whom were their associates. [8] Their next destination was the great city of Constantinople, where the esteemed John Chrysostom served as Bishop. [9] While here, Cassian became a firm follower of Chrysostom’s and was appointed as a deacon by him, serving with Germanus as caretakers of the cathedral treasury. [10] Through a variety of circumstances, however, Chrysostom himself fell out of favor and thus those who had fled Egypt, fled once again, including John Cassian and Germanus. [11] Showing an apparent high and respected status within the church, Cassian went to Rome in behalf of Chrysostom, met with Pope Innocent I, as well as other present and future leaders of the Church, including the future Pope Leo. [12] He did not stay in Rome long, but moved to southern Gaul, and having at some point been ordained a priest, established two monasteries in the vicinity of Marseilles, [13] one for men and one for women. [14] Although he was active in discussion and debate with all of Christendom, John Cassian remained in Marseilles for the rest of his life.

Around the year 426 John Cassian composed what he called The Conferences. Writing in a common genre of the time, Cassian composed twenty-four conversations which he and his friend Germanus had engaged in during their time in Egypt. These conversations record the wisdom of the greatest of the Egyptian abbas, and form a strong foundation for understanding Desert Spirituality. In reality, it must be remembered that it is very likely Cassian did not take notes of his conversations, and that these were written about a quarter of a century afterwards, for a specific context in Gaul. Thus, Boniface Ramsey, Cassian’s most recent translator, states that “our knowledge of the ancient dialogical form strongly suggests that The Conferences as a whole are elaborated versions of past conversations – occasionally, and perhaps often, elaborated beyond immediate recognition.” [15] With this in mind we can safely understand these conferences as definitely reflecting Desert Spirituality, but also more directly reflecting the thought of Cassian himself.

In writing of The Conferences, Cassian laid out the practices and thoughts of the desert monks for the instruction of those in Gaul, and in the West as a whole. He wrote them in order to lay out the “character of the inner man”. [16] He sought to give instruction to his monks in a manner which would not only instruct them, but also give to them a model of instruction, and instructors who were beyond himself. [17] However, in this genre it is truly Cassian whose thoughts we are hearing and teaching we are receiving. While these great abbas are the voices, Cassian is shaping, modeling, and adjusting their thoughts to fit his specific circumstances and needs. It is impossible to know the true extent to which we are hearing the original voices of these holy men, but it is clear that in writing down their thoughts Cassian is agreeing with them and adopting their words as his own, sometimes most definitely supplying his own words as theirs.

The genre allows for both long discourse, and importantly, the questions which were likely to be raised in the discussion. These responses by Cassian, and most usually Germanus, were meant to model the readers, and give a voice to those who came upon the conferences in their own time. He realized the need for deeper discipleship, and the manner in which such teaching could be conveyed. So he tells his readers in the preface to his third part:

Receiving the very authors of the conferences into their cells, along with the books of the conferences, and as it were speaking with them by way of daily questions and answers, they will not seek out by their own devices the hard and almost unknown path in this region (which is dangerous even where well-worn roads and innumerable examples of those who have gone before are already not lacking), but will become accustomed instead to lay hold of the discipline of the anchoritic life through their precepts, which both an ancient tradition and the effort of a long experience have arranged for every contingency.

The paths have been laid out, men have forged trails of spirituality which answer some of our deepest questions and speak to our darkest secrets, so we must seek these answers and voices to help us along our journey, and in doing so help us to come closer to the one who is calling us.

In his very first Conference, [18] Cassian begins with the end. That is, he begins by relating to us for what reason monks engage in the spiritual life, laying out the goals in doing so, and the end to which they hope to reach. The abba Moses, the primary speaker in this conference, calls this goal the scopos, and notes it is that which “the lover of any art sets his gaze and for which he calmly and gladly endures every labor and danger and expense.” [19] He is firm is saying that the practices, the activities, the devotions, and every other activity which monks engage in are not an end in themselves. They are secondary activities engaged in to help them meet their goal, which is in fact purity of heart. In saying this, he constructs a model and guide for which every subsequent conference will depend on. Whatever is done, whatever is said must lead to the fulfilling of their goal, which they should pursue with “all our strength”, and any activity which does not lead to such, even if it appears worthwhile and good, must be abandoned. [20] The practices and activities of the monks are worthwhile indeed, but only insomuch as they actually do lead to a purity of heart.

Moses realizes very clearly that this is not a goal which we can hope to achieve. Rather, he is aware that as humans our thoughts and activities often deter our plans, cause us to lose heart, and divert our attention away from what we ought to seek. It is with this in mind that he affirms the goal being firmly established in our minds. For it is when we fail, when we are diverted, when our attention is lost, that in order to recover and be put back on track we need to have a goal in place so as to always have a path on which to return from our dalliances. Having a goal of being pure in heart, calls us back from our diversions so that once again we can put our eyes on Christ. For we need a path and goal to reach our end, which is the Kingdom of Heaven. This kingdom includes for us “continual tranquility and everlasting joy.” [21] It is the endless contemplation of the glory of God and the wholeness of heart which is impossible while in our present state. There are indeed many ways at which we can meet our goal and arrive at our end, but we must always keep our goal of purity of heart in mind, and our end of the Kingdom of Heaven before us if we are to be able to endure the trials and struggles which these require.

In Conference Two, Moses develops a concept which he ended with in the first conference, and which is vital to understanding this spirituality. This crucial concept is discretion. In Conference One he briefly compared the skill of discretion to the practiced skill of a moneychanger in working with currency. This skill must be able to determine worth, identify types of counterfeits, and discern damage and ill-use. So too must a monk be always discerning the spiritual truths and activities which he engages in or encounters in order to determine the worth and efficacy of such “currency”. In the next conference he fills out this idea, saying that it is not simply a skill which is natural to everyone, nor even one which can be gotten by human effort, but rather it is a divine gift and an act of Grace by God. Yet, if a monk does not have this gift he is like one who walks in shadows and darkness, and liable to fall into deep ditches, stumble and bruise himself, and lose the path which he seeks to tread. Discretion is that which “avoids excess of any kind and teaches the monk always to proceed along the royal road and does not let him be inflated by virtues on the right hand… nor let him wander off to the vices on the left hand because of a weakness for pleasure.” [22] The idea of one keeping away from the vices is not very surprising, but it is interesting that Moses puts overzealousness on an equal level.

In his mind, overfasting weakens the body and soul as much as overeating. Using copious examples to support the danger of both extremes, he shows that the enemy uses our yearning for good as well as our tendency towards evil in knocking us off our course. It is vital that one keep in mind our goal, and not be led astray by what seems to be wise and honoring, but is outside of what God asks of us. Discretion helps us stay on the road which steadily ascends, and which leads us to the heights with little weariness. [23] Lack of discretion causes inconvenience, disunity, wickedness, and may even lead to death. According to Moses the key to having discretion is humility. The sign of this is the willingness to lay out one’s whole life before the elders of the community, as well as constant devotion to Scripture and other holy writings, so that in their wisdom one might learn and grow. He realizes that it takes the wisdom of the ages to gain true discretion, and trust in one’s own wisdom will certainly lead to death.

Yet with this Moses concedes that age is not a sure sign of discretion, but rather the lives and holiness of the elders must be in keeping with spiritual maturity. Moses admits that maybe even the majority of those who are old do not have wisdom to teach, but rather use their age alone to claim authority, and the enemy uses their foolishness to deceive those who are young. It is the steady spiritual ascent begun when one is young, progressing to old age, which produces wisdom, rather than simply growing old. Understanding this, he maintains that truly wise elders are essential to spiritual ascent and the gaining of discretion. For they have been down the path one is on, and can point out the course which lies ahead. Thus, one must humble himself before others in order to gain the discretion which is essential for living a life which has as its goal purity of heart and the Kingdom of God as its end. With this said in the voice of Abba Moses, Cassian has laid out the foundations of developing a spiritual life.

In Conference Five, a meeting with Abba Serapion, John Cassian enumerates the enemies which will assail us in our struggle, namely the eight principal vices which lead to death. Rather than a simple description of these vices and an admonishment to stray from them, Cassian continues his style of practical spirituality, not engaging in platitudes, but understanding the ferocity of the battle, and the useful strategies of the fight. For Cassian is not as much a philosopher as a practical theologian. This conference, indeed all of them, have in mind the true reality of life, and seek to give a plan of battle, tactics and strategies, so that a monk can be well armed and well trained for the foe. The language of warfare is extensive throughout the entire book and Cassian continually reminds the reader of the ferocity of the battle. The eight vices which he names here are in keeping with lists which were popular during this time and which may have been first itemized by Evagrius.

The first is gluttony, followed by fornication, avarice, anger, sadness, acedia (or anxiety or weariness of the heart), vainglory, and finally pride. He divides these eight into two categories. The carnal vices are those which require some kind of bodily cooperation to be fulfilled. The Spiritual vices give no pleasure to the body, indeed may in fact cause it harm, but are instead pleasure of the soul and mind. All of the vices are in some way related, and there exists a hierarchy of their severity and source. In a discussion of Adam and Jesus (the new Adam), Abba Serapion, who Cassian gives the distinction of being “particularly adorned with the grace of discretion”, [24] lays out the idea of different levels of vice, the higher ones resulting in the lower, so that if the higher ones are conquered so are the lower, in the same way as if the roots of a tree were removed, the whole tree would die as well. With this he shows that Adam and Jesus were tempted with three vices, gluttony, vainglory, and pride. By giving into these three, Adam was introduced to those which follow, and by resisting these three Jesus was not tempted by the vices which result from succumbing.

Serapion distinguishes the first six vices from the last two, saying that the first six are “connected among themselves by a certain affinity and, so to speak, interlinking, such that the overflow of the previous one serves as the start of the next one.” [25] Thus, once Jesus resisted gluttony, he likewise resisted all that sprung from it. The order which he lays out is gluttony leads to fornication, which leads to avarice, leading to anger, resulting in sadness, and finally sadness leads to acedia. The strategy then is to conquer the vices which lie at the heart of the others. The vices of pride and vainglory, however, are of a different kind. For it is when the first six vices have been conquered that these two can be the most powerful. So it is the case that our triumphs can result in our deaths if we are not vigilant. This is why these are the most dangerous, because they assault us at the height of our ascent, and may cause the greatest fall of all. The example before us is Satan himself, who though in the presence of God, gained pride and fell to be beyond redemption. Yet, Serapion admits that vainglory does have a positive role in the lives of weaker Christians. For if it is before us, it just might keep us from the other vices, not for our own sake but for the sake of our appearance and reputation. In keeping us from sin it serves a positive role, yet ultimately it and pride are the most pernicious vices, and once ensconced very difficult to root out.

There is an understanding here that we are not by our own efforts able to weed out these vices, but rather are in every way dependent on the grace and help of God in our struggle. But, that does not mean we do not struggle, for while we pray continually for help, we must also be diligent in struggling and fighting these vices in order to be cleansed. Also, Serapion notes that our struggles are different, that while all of us wage war on each of these vices, we each “suffer in different ways and manners.” [26] So while we must diligently learn from those who have gone before us, our specific battle is unique to us, and someone else’s strategy for overcoming may not work in our war. So we must be aware of the specific tactics of the enemy in our case, responding with appropriate tactics of our own, always mindful to fill the territory lost by the vices with virtues, so that the enemy cannot return with greater force. The goal of our tactics, learned from discretion, and the whole of our battle is to destroy these vices in our hearts and minds so that we can achieve purity of heart and enter into the Kingdom of God.

In His Fourteenth Conference we read of concepts voiced by Abba Nestorius which are often used to summarize Cassian’s thinking as a whole, the ideas of praktikh, meaning practical or active way, and qewrhtikh, meaning contemplative way. [27] The praktikh includes knowing the nature of the vices and the ways in which they can be remedied and conquered. It is also the knowledge and practice of the virtues in such a way that it is no longer a struggle to attain to them, but rather becomes part of one’s instinct. The virtuous life becomes a natural way of living and fills the person with joy and delight in their practice. Nestorius supports the idea that there are various ways of attaining to this goal. The first is through solitude and through this one can achieve purity of heart. The second is within community, where the service and practice of the social virtues (i.e. hospitality, service, teaching, intercession, healing, etc.), can just as equally lead to this same purity. Nestorius then gives us a guideline to follow, stating that “it is beneficial and proper for each person, in accordance with the orientation that he has chosen and the grace that he has received, to strive most zealously and diligently to attain perfection in the work that he has undertaken.” [28]

In saying this, he urges the monks to not be led astray from their own calling because of the benefits of what others are doing. It is the idea of the “body” which places some in certain positions, and others in different ones, so that the church has a whole can be completed. Just because one is finding grace in a specific task or activity, does not mean that this is a universal calling for all. We must be faithful to what we personally have been called to do. For as Nestorius states, “there are many ways that lead to God, and therefore each person should finish the one he has taken up so that he may be perfect in his profession, whatever it may be.” [29] It is here that once again discretion in our tasks is so important.

The practical way is the first, and must be pursued to its fullest before the contemplative way can be attained. This contemplation, which consists of the discernment of divine things and in understanding sacred meaning, consists of two parts, historical interpretation and spiritual understanding. Through these we can gain greater understanding of the person and work of God, and in doing so come closer to the Kingdom of Heaven which is our end. It is the understanding of God for who he is, rather than for what we can do or avoid doing. In this way it can be considered a higher ideal, the goal of the monk, because it is impossible to truly dwell on God when the vices of this world still assail us. So one who is able to achieve spiritual understanding is by nature one who is far along in the spiritual journey. This knowledge is “alive and fruitful” and results in great wisdom and giftings. Yet, even here the danger is great, because the temptation of pride and vainglory for achieving such spiritual enlightenment is great indeed, and can result in one becoming worse off than if they had not found spiritual knowledge. In this we see the continued interaction between the two ways, with the practical side always active in first gaining and then supporting the contemplative way, for while on this earth we must be always on guard for the temptations and schemes of the evil one to deter us from our goal.

It is unfortunate that space does not allow for a complete treatment of each of the conferences. For in each we find great wisdom, coupled with practical application which is interesting in a historical sense, and so useful for our own spiritual journeys in this day and age. We could cover his treatment of prayer, in Conferences Nine and Ten, in which we see how very important this practice is to the spiritual life, and how these monks viewed and practiced it. Likewise, it would be helpful to see his view of free-will and grace in Conference Thirteen which was in many ways written in intentional contrast to the now better known Augustine. Although the followers of Augustine eventually won the philosophical battle (which in truth is still being waged), in his day and age Cassian found more acceptance in his rejection of total predestination and encouragement of our own role in the spiritual life. [30] Each Conference contains in it an expression of spiritual battle and the need for strenuous spiritual exertions, yet understands clearly the weaknesses and character of the human soul. There is a balance here which is extraordinary, and because of which has inspired countless leaders of the Church from Benedict to Wesley in their own spiritual journeys and teachings. And in fact it speaks so clearly to us today. While some may reject the lifestyle and extremity of these fathers and their teachings it is useful to hear what Cassian himself said on this subject:

Before anything else, we want the reader of these conferences to be advised that if perhaps he thinks, by reason of his status and chosen orientation or from the point of view of ordinary custom and way of life, that there are things in these books that are impossible or hard, he should not judge them by the standard of his own ability but according to the dignity of the speakers. In this regard if anyone wishes to give a true opinion and desires to see whether these things can be fulfilled, let him first hasten to seize upon their chosen orientation with a similar zeal and by a similar way of life. Only then will he realize that what seemed beyond human capacity is not only possible but even most sweet. [31]

In the spiritual journeys of our day we indeed do face different battles, different circumstances, and live in what really is an almost completely different world. However, The Conferences not only are interesting reading but provide even for our era a roadmap of sorts for the spiritual path. We may have some alterations in our theology in several areas (which of course brings us back to the concept of discretion), but the general message of these abbas is something we need to hear in our own day. It is exciting to read these thoughts of over 1500 years ago and be able to identify with the struggles and concepts, and be challenged by the maturity these men possessed. As one who is now the same age as Cassian himself most probably was when he took to the desert for wisdom, [32] I understand his yearning for wisdom from his wise elders, and the great benefits that such wisdom can provide. His journey and writings have come alongside my own path, and has provided for me exactly what he intended for his readers in his writing down of these conversations, an advanced guide for the spiritual life John Cassian is truly one of the great Spiritual leaders of our history, and still essential reading for anyone interesting in traveling down the path of true Spirituality and into the Kingdom of God.

[1] Everett Ferguson, Encyclopedia of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing, 1997), 219. See Owen Chadwick, John Cassian (Cambridge: University Press, 1968), 9ff. for a fuller argument and discussion of Cassian’s birthplace.

[2] Institutes, 11.18., Conferences 24.1.2.

[3] Conferences, 24.1.2.

[4] Institutes 3.4, 4.31; Conferences 11.5. See Chadwick, 10ff. for a discussion of the dates and the age of Cassian. Apparently, Cassian was in the same area at the same time as Jerome, but there is no indication that these two ever interacted.

[5] This story is told in Conferences, 20.1 and Institutes 4.30 and 31

[6] See Conference, 17.

[7] See Panagiotis C. Christou, “Cassian, John”, Encyclopedia of Religion, v. 3, Mercia Eliade, ed. (New York: MacMillan, 1987), 108. They did during this time, after about 7 years, return very briefly to their old monastery in Bethlehem, apparently securing an official release from their pledge, but soon after returned to the deserts of Egypt for an unspecified amount of time. See Chadwick, 15ff.

[8] This is never cited as the direct reason, though Cassian does appear to be a supporter of the Origenist, and reflects a great deal of their teaching (especially Evagrius’) in his writings. See Chadwick, 25ff., and 83ff. for a discussion of Origen and Evagrius. Philip Rousseau in Ascetics, Authority, and the Church: In the Age of Jerome and Cassian (Oxford: University Press, 1978), 177ff. suggests that they were simply not happy in Egypt and Cassian wished to return to his place of birth.

[9] Constantinople lies about halfway between Egypt and Scythia, and had they been planning on returning home they would pass through here on there way, however, Constantinople was also a haven for Origenists who were escaping persecution and would find favor under John Chrysostom. See Chadwick, 30 and Rousseau, 172.

[10] Chadwick 31ff.

[11] See Rousseau, 172ff.

[12] Chadwick, 32 and Ferguson, 219 assert that Leo and Cassian struck up a strong friendship at this time, though Rousseau, 173 disputes this fact saying the only evidence for such is a ambiguous statement in the preface of Cassian’s, On the Incarnation, which was commissioned by Leo in response to the Nestorians. While this writing shows that Cassian continued to be held in high regard by Rome, it does not necessarily point to a strong friendship.

[13] Southeastern France

[14] These were established around 415. See Christou, 106.

[15] Boniface Ramsey, in his introduction, John Cassian: The Conferences, Ancient Christian Writers, no. 57 (New York: Newman Press, 1997), 11.

[16] Conferences, Preface to the First Part.

[17] See Rousseau, 221ff.

[18] Literary, not chronologically. The chronological sequence appears to be 11-17, 18-24, 1-10, though evidence is indeed scanty. See Chadwick, 49ff. and Ramsey, 8ff.

[19] Conferences, 1.2.1

[20] Conferences, 1.6.2

[21] Conferences, 1.13.4.

[22] Conferences, 2.2.4.

[23] Conferences, 2.4.4.

[24] Conferences, 5.1

[25] Conferences, 5.10.1

[26] Conferences, 5.13.1.

[27] It is well argued by Philip Rousseau, “Cassian, Contemplation, and the Coenobitic Life”, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 26:2 (April 1995): 113-26 that this is not necessarily the crux of Cassian’s thought, as it is found really only in this conference, and that the distinctions which are made here become somewhat blurred in his other writings, as well as in his own life.

[28] Conferences, 5.1.

[29] Conferences 14.6

[30] This conference was the source for Cassian’s later official disregard in the Church, and which branded him as Semi-Pelagian. In fact he rejected Pelagius as much as he did Augustine. His was a practical view, rather than strictly theological, and can be considered more balanced. See Chadwick, 110-136;

[31] The Conferences, Preface to the First Part.